Notes on Agroforestry

Agroforestry - Definitions, Objectives, Potential and Distinction between Agroforestry and Social Forestry

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Source: ICAR Web

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Concept of Agroforestry:

• Agroforestry is an age-old practice.
• Farmers in warmer regions have a tradition of growing food crops, trees, and animals together.
• Trees and forests are integral to Indian culture.
• Rishis who evolved Hindu philosophy lived in forests in harmony with nature.
• Planting trees was practiced alongside agriculture crops.
• "Krishishukti" by Maharishi Kashyap classified suitable areas for tree planting.
• Traditional foresters and agriculturists focused on monoculture production.
• Recent forest area reduction led to resource scarcity.
• Shortage of wood increased commodity prices.
• Farmers started planting trees on their lands to meet shortages.
• Agroforestry is a collective name for land use systems involving trees, crops, and/or animals.
• Agroforestry combines production of multiple outputs with protection of the production base.
• It emphasizes the use of indigenous trees and shrubs.
• Suitable for low-input conditions and fragile environments.
• Involves sociocultural values more than other land-use systems.
• Structurally and functionally more complex than monoculture.

AGROFORESTRY DEFINITIONS:

• Agroforestry is a relatively new name for old land use practices.
• Different definitions proposed worldwide.
• Accepted as a land use system.
• Bene et al. (1977) defined agroforestry as a sustainable management system.
• King and Chandler (1978): "Agroforestry is a sustainable land management system."
• Nair (1979) defines agroforestry as a land use system that integrates trees, crops, and animals.
• Lundgren and Raintree (1982) define agroforestry as a collective name for land use systems.
• Agroforestry systems have ecological and economical interactions between components.

Objectives of Agroforestry:

• Two essential aims: conserve and improve the site, optimize combined production.
• Three attributes: productivity, sustainability, adoptability.

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Notes on Important Plant Pathogenic Organisms

Notes on Important Plant Pathogenic Organisms

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Source: TNAU Notes

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Plant Pathogenic Organisms:

Parasites:

• Include both biotic and mesobiotic agents.
• Diseases incited by parasites under suitable environment.
• Association of definite pathogen is essential with each disease.

Biotic Agents:

• Also known as animate causes.
• Living organisms.
• Include Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes.

Prokaryotes:

• True bacteria or bacteria: Facultative parasites, e.g., Citrus canker.
• Rickettsia-like bacteria (RLB): e.g., Citrus greening, Pierce's disease of grape.
• Mollicutes or wall-less prokaryotes.
• Mycoplasma-like organism (MLO): e.g., Sesame phyllody, eggplant little leaf.
• Spiroplasma: e.g., Corn stunt, Citrus stubborn.

Eukaryotes:

• Protists: Unicellular, coenocytic, or multicellular, little/no cell differentiation.
• Fungi: e.g., wilt of cotton.
• Protozoa: e.g., heart rot of coconut.
• Algae: e.g., red rust of mango.
• Parasitic flowering plants (phanerogamic parasites): e.g., Broomrape of tobacco.
• Animals: Extensive cell differentiation, e.g., Nematodes - Root knot nematode.

Mesobiotic Agents:

• Include viruses and viroids.
• Infectious agents; can be crystallized.
• Considered non-living but multiply in living plants.
• Viruses: e.g., yellow mosaic of blackgram.
• Viroids: e.g., spindle tuber of potato.

Non-parasites or Abiotic Agents:

• Also known as non-infectious or physiological disorders.
• Caused by non-living or environmental factors.
• Occur due to disturbances in plant system by improper environmental conditions.

Examples of Abiotic Agents:

• Too low or too high temperature.
• Lack or excess of soil moisture.
• Lack or excess of light.
• Lack of oxygen.
• Air pollution (Toxic gases, etc.).
• Mineral deficiencies or toxicities.
• Soil acidity or alkalinity.
• Toxicity of pesticides.
• Improper agricultural practices.

Important Plant Pathogenic Organisms:

Parasites:

• Parasites are both biotic and mesobiotic agents.
• Diseases are incited by parasites under suitable environments.
• Each disease requires a definite pathogen association.

Biotic Agents:

• Also known as animate causes.
• These are living organisms.

Prokaryotes:

• True bacteria or bacteria: Examples include Citrus canker.
• Rickettsia-like bacteria (RLB): Examples include Citrus greening, Pierce's disease of grape.
• Mollicutes or wall-less prokaryotes.
• Mycoplasma-like organism (MLO): Examples include Sesame phyllody, eggplant little leaf.
• Spiroplasma: Examples include Corn stunt, Citrus stubborn.

Eukaryotes:

• Protists: These are unicellular, coenocytic, or multicellular with little or no cell differentiation.
• Fungi: An example is the wilt of cotton.
• Protozoa: An example is heart rot of coconut.
• Algae: An example is red rust of mango.
• Parasitic flowering plants (phanerogamic parasites): An example is Broomrape of tobacco.
• Animals: These have extensive cell differentiation, e.g., Nematodes - Root knot nematode.

Mesobiotic Agents:

• Include viruses and viroids.
• Infectious agents that can be crystallized.
• Multiply in living plants but considered non-living.
• Viruses: An example is yellow mosaic of blackgram.
• Viroids: An example is spindle tuber of potato.

Non-parasites or Abiotic Agents:

• Also known as non-infectious or physiological disorders.
• Caused by environmental factors when no pathogen is found.
• Result from disturbances in the plant system due to improper environmental conditions.

Examples of Abiotic Agents:

• Extreme temperatures (too low or high).
• Imbalanced soil moisture (lack or excess).
• Inadequate or excessive light.
• Oxygen deficiency.
• Air pollution including toxic gases.
• Mineral imbalances (deficiencies or toxicities).
• Soil pH extremes (acidity or alkalinity).
• Pesticide toxicity.
• Improper agricultural practices.

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Notes on 2b. Basic Principles of Crop Production

Notes on 2b. Basic Principles of Crop Production

References: General Agriculture by Muniraj

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Agricultural Concepts and Techniques:

• Competition Index proposed by Donald (1968).
• Curing is associated with Tobacco & Tea.
• Trashing is associated with Sugarcane.
• Stripping is associated with Jute.
• Wrapping is associated with Sugarcane.
• Wind circulation in cyclone in Northern hemisphere: Anticlockwise.
• Isohyets: Imaginary lines connecting points of equal rainfall.
• Isobar: Imaginary lines connecting points of equal atmospheric pressure.
• Isopluvial: Imaginary lines connecting equal depth of rainfall.
• Isotech: Imaginary lines connecting equal points of equal wind velocities.
• Rotavator is used for Primary & secondary cultivation.
• Roundup herbicide contains Glyphosate.
• Roundup is a registered product of Monsanto company.
• Collective farming system originated from South Union.
• Leucaena leucocephala: "Miracle plant" useful for fuel, fodder, and manure.
• Oldest tractor manufacturing company: New Holland (1895).
• Sugarcane is used to make car fuel in Brazil.
• First chemically manufactured fertilizer: Ammonium sulphate.
• Optimum temperature for crop production: 15-20°C.

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Notes on 1b. Importance of Agriculture in Indian Economy, Agriculture Scenarios, Agriculture Current Affairs

Notes on 1b. Importance of Agriculture in Indian Economy, Agriculture Scenarios, Agriculture Current Affairs

Source: General Agriculture by Muniraj

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*Data Year: 2018-19 (Read Latest Data from Agriculture Current Affairs “AGRICA” by RS Maitry Sir )

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* Average Yield Data:

• Average yield Kg./ha of total Food grains: 2129 kg./ha
• Average yield Kg./ha of Rabi food grains: 2441 kg./ha
• Average yield Kg/ha of Kharif food grains: 1890 kg/ha
• Average yield Kg./ha of total Cereals: 2525 kg./ha
• Average yield Kg/ha of Rice: 2494 Kg./ha
• Average yield Kg/ha of Wheat: 3200 Kg./ha
• Average yield Kg./ha of Maize: 2689 kg./ha
• Average yield Kg./ha of Cotton: 512 Kg./ha
• Average yield Kg./ha of Sugarcane: 69001 kg./ha
• Average yield Kg./ha of total Pulses: 786 kg./ha
• Average yield Kg./ha Of Gram: 974 kg./ha
• Average yield Kg./ha of Ground nut: 1398 kg./ha
• Average yield Kg./lta of total Nine Oil seeds: 195 kg./ha

Area Coverage Data:

• Gross area under Rice: 41.09 M. hm
• Gross area under Wheat: 30.42 M. ha.
• Gross area under Ground nut: 4.79 M. ha.
• Gross area under Cotton: 12.25 M. ha.
• Gross area under Sugarcane: 4.99 M. ha.
• Gross area under Jute: 0.708 M. ha.
• Gross area under total Cereals: 95.49 M. ha.
• Gross area under total Pulses: 31.11 M. ha.
• Gross area under total Oil seeds: 25.42 M. ha.
• Gross area under Rabi season: 64.28 M. ha.
• Gross area under total Food grains: 126.60 M. ha.
• Area covered under organic manure in India: 349.70 lac.ha.
• Area covered under Green manure in India: 12.62 lac. ha.
• Total Organic manure production: 2803.00 Lac tones

Global Leadership in Crop Production:

• World leader in Wheat production: China, 2nd India
• World leader in Rice production: China, 2nd India
• World leader in Total Pulses production: India, 2nd Myanmar
• World leader in Maize production: USA, 2nd China
• World leader in Sorghum production: USA, 2nd Mexico
• World leader in Oat production: Russia & Canada
• World leader in Total Cereals production: China, 2nd USA
• World leader in Groundnut production: China, 2nd India
• World leader in Rape seed production: Canada, 2nd China
• World leader in Vegetables production: China
• World leader in Fruit production: China
• World leader in Potato production: China
• World leader in Onion(Dry) production: China
• World leader in Sugarcane production: Brazil

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Notes on 2a. Basic Principles of Crop Production

Notes on 2a. Basic Principles of Crop Production

References: General Agriculture by Muniraj

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Read Latest Agriculture Current Affairs “AGRICA” by RS Maitry Sir )

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Basic Principles of Crop Production:

• Father of agronomy: Peter De-crescenzi
• Author of "Horse Hoeing Husbandry": Jethro Tull
• Father of weed science: Jethro Tull
• Jhum cultivation mostly found in Eastern part of India
• Demerit of shifting cultivation: Soil loss
• Objective of sustainable Agriculture: Ecological balance
• Maximum plant population pattern of planting: Cuboidal pattern
• Mixed farming includes crop production and live-stock
• Mono cropping: Same crop on the same land year after year
• Parallel cropping: Crops with different natural habits and zero competition
• Synergetic cropping: Yields of both crops higher than pure crops on a unit area
• Guard crops: Growing hard and thorny crops around the main crop
• Rotation cropping: Different crops in the same area in sequential seasons
• Multistoried cropping: Different height crops simultaneously on the same land
• Cropping intensity always 100% in Monocropping
• Peira cropping mostly adopted in Bihar & West Bengal
• Skip cropping: Leaving a line unsown in the regular row series
• Herbicide with longest soil residence: Linuron
• Terra farming: Developing mass according to Earth's environment
• Harvest Index formula: H.I. = [ Economic yield / Biological yield] x 100
• Cropping Intensity: CI= [ Total cropped area /Total sown area ] x 100
• Agro Climatic Regional planning in India started in 7th Five year plan (1988)
• Total agro climatic zones in India: 15 Zones
• Dry Farming: Cultivation in areas with less than 750m.m. annual rainfall
• Dry land Farming: More than 750m.m. but less than 1150 mm annual rainfall
• Rain fed Farming: Cultivation in regions with more than 1150m.m. annual rainfall

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Notes on 1a. Importance of Agriculture in Indian Economy, Agriculture Scenarios, Agriculture Current Affairs

Notes on 1a. Importance of Agriculture in Indian Economy, Agriculture Scenarios, Agriculture Current Affairs

Source: General Agriculture by Muniraj

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*Data Year: 2018-19 (Read Latest Data from Agriculture Current Affairs “AGRICA” by RS Maitry Sir )

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Food Grain Production Data:

• Total Food grain production: 284.83 MT
• Total estimated kharif food grain production: 141.59 MT
• Total Kharif food grains production: 140.73 MT
• Total Rabi food grains production: 144.10 MT
• Total Food grain production growth from FY 16-17: 9.72 MT
• Total Food grains production: 275.11 MT
• Total Kharif food grains production: 138.33 MT
• Total Rabi food grains production: 136.78 MT

Cereal and Other Crop Production Data:

• Total Cereals production: 259.59 MT
• Total production of Rice: 112.91 MT
• Total production of Wheat: 99.70 MT
• Total production of Pulses: 25.23 MT
• Production growth in Pulses from year 16-17: 3.10MT
• Total Oilseed production: 31.30 MT
• Growth in Oil seed production from year 16-17: 0.03 MT
• Total Cotton production: 34.88 Million Bales
• Growth in Cotton production from year 16-17: 2.31 Million Bales
• Total Jute production: 9.62 Million Bales
• Total Sugarcane production: 376.90 MT
• Growth in Sugarcane production from year 16-17: 70.84 MT

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Notes on 1. Introduction to Horticulture

Source: Introduction to Horticulture by N. Kumar

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Origin and Definition:

• ‘Horticulture’ term was first appeared in 17th century writings.
• ‘Horticulture’ derived from Latin "Hortus" (garden) and "cultura" (cultivation).
• Modern horticulture: Science and practice of growing fruits, vegetables, ornamental plants, spices, and medicinal plants.
• Horticulture focuses on "garden crops" (fruits, vegetables, spices, etc.).
• Horticultural crops features:
• Highly perishable, utilized fresh.
• Intensive cultivation with high inputs (capital, labor, technology).
• Rich in vitamins and minerals.
• Can be aesthetic or ornamental.

• Horticultural focus on intensive cultivation of high-value, perishable crops.
• Horticultural crops are rich in vitamins, minerals, and aesthetic appeal.

Divisions of Horticulture:

• Pomology: Study of fruit crops, classified as woody (trees, shrubs, vines) or herbaceous (prostrate or upright).
• Olericulture: Study of vegetable crops, classified as annuals, biennials, or perennials.
• Floriculture: Study of ornamental plants, including cut flowers, potted plants, and landscape plants.
• Landscape Horticulture: Design, construction, and maintenance of landscapes.

Fruit Crops:

• Classified by plant type (woody/herbaceous), growth habit (deciduous/evergreen), temperature requirements (temperate/subtropical/tropical), and humidity tolerance (arid/semi-arid/humid).
• Examples: Apple, pear, mango, litchi, strawberry, banana.

Vegetable Crops:

• Classified by plant part harvested (roots, stems, leaves, flowers, fruits, seeds).
• Examples: Tomato, potato, carrot, spinach, cauliflower, beans.

Additional Notes:

• Horticulture also includes arboriculture (study of trees) and postharvest management of crops.
• Horticultural practices like propagation, pruning, and harvesting require specialized skills.
• Horticultural science plays a vital role in food security, nutrition, and environmental sustainability.

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Notes on 1. Introduction to Agronomy

Notes 1. Introduction to Agronomy

Source: Principle of Agronomy By S R Reddy

Introduction:

• Agriculture is the most important human economic activity.
• Agriculture is a biological process.
• Primary products of agriculture are organic.
• Agriculture's resource base includes land, water, and air.

Terminology:

• Agriculture originates from Latin words 'ager' (soil) and 'culture' (cultivation).
• Major crops in conventional agriculture: rice, wheat, maize, millets, groundnut, soybean.
• Conventional agriculture leads to vulnerability to disease, herbivore predation, and soil erosion.

Agronomy:

• Agronomy comes from the Greek words 'agros' (field) and 'nomos' (manage).
• Agronomy is a branch of agriculture focused on field crop production and soil management.
• Agronomy combines sciences like biology, chemistry, ecology, soil science, plant physiology, and genetics.
• Agronomy integrates physical, chemical, and biological knowledge for production systems.
• Agronomists focus on crop production and field management for food, fiber, and feed production.
• Agronomists should have knowledge in plant physiology, soil science, and plant protection.

Crops:

• A crop is a plant grown for food, fodder, fuel, or other economic purposes.
• Crop plants are derived from wild progenitors through selection and breeding.
• Crop classification includes cereals, legumes, oilseeds, fiber, forage, sugar, root, tuber, drug, plantation, condiments, spices, medicinal, and aromatic plants.
• Cereals are the most important crops, occupying two-thirds of cultivated land.
• Cereals provide over 50% of the world's energy and protein needs.
• Cereals include wheat, rice, barley, rye, oats, maize, sorghum, millet.
• Seed legumes (e.g., soybean, field bean, groundnut) are important for food production.
• Root and tuber crops (e.g., potato, sweet potato, cassava) are significant in diet.

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SYLLABUS FOR THE ALL INDIA COMPETITIVE EXAMINATION FOR

ADMISSION TO DOCTORAL DEGREE PROGRAMMES AND THE AWARD OF

JRF/SRF (PGS):

SYLLABUS FOR ICAR AICE PHD JRF/SRF (PGS) EXAM FOR
64 AGRONOMY

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Unit 1: Crop Ecology and Geography

• Principles of crop ecology
• Ecosystem-concept and determinants of crop productivity
• Physiological limits of crop yield and variability in relation to ecological optima
• Crop adaptation
• Climate shift and its ecological implication
• Greenhouse effect
• Agro-ecological and agro-climatic regions of India
• Geographical distribution of cereals, legumes, oilseeds, vegetables, fodders and forages, commercial crops, condiments and spices, medicinal and aromatic plants
• Adverse climatic factors and crop productivity
• Photosynthesis, respiration, net assimilation, solar energy conversion efficiency, and relative water content
• Light intensity, water, and CO2 in relation to photosynthetic rates and efficiency
• Physiological stress in crops, detection and indices
• Remote sensing: Spectral indices and their application in agriculture

Unit 2: Weed Management

• Scope and principles of weed management
• Weed classification, biology, ecology, and allelopathy
• Weed seed dormancy
• Crop weed competition and weed threshold
• Herbicides classification, formulations, mode of action, selectivity, and resistance
• Persistence of herbicides in soils and plants
• Application methods and equipment
• Cultural, physical, chemical, and biological weed control
• Bio-herbicides
• Integrated weed management
• Special weeds, parasitic, and aquatic weeds and their management
• Weed control schedules in field crops, vegetables, and plantation crops
• Role of Genetically Modified (GM) crops in weed management

Unit 3: Soil Fertility and Fertilizer Use

• History of soil fertility and fertilizer use
• Concept of essentiality of plant nutrients
• Critical concentrations in plants, nutrient interactions, diagnostic techniques
• Soil fertility and productivity indicators
• Fertilizer materials including liquid fertilizers
• Composition, mineralization, availability, and reaction in soils
• Water solubility of phosphate fertilizers
• Slow-release fertilizers, nitrification inhibitors
• Principles and methods of fertilizer application including fertigation
• Integrated nutrient management and bio-fertilizers
• Agronomic and physiological efficiency and recovery of applied plant nutrients
• Criteria for determining fertilizer schedules for cropping systems
• Fertilizer-related environmental problems including groundwater pollution
• Site-specific nutrient management

Unit 4: Dryland Agronomy

• Concept of dryland farming
• Dryland farming vs. rainfed farming
• History, development, significance, and constraints of dryland agriculture in India
• Climatic classification and delineation of dryland tracts
• Characterization of agro-climatic environments of drylands
• Rainfall analysis and length of growing season
• Types of drought and their effects on plant growth
• Drought resistance, avoidance, and management
• Crop planning including contingency, crop diversification, varieties, cropping systems, and mid-season corrections
• Moisture conservation techniques
• Rainwater harvesting and recycling
• Summer ploughing, seed hardening, pre-monsoon sowing, weed and nutrient management
• Importance of watershed management in dryland areas

Unit 5: Crop Production

• Crop production techniques for cereals, millets, pulses/grain legumes, oilseeds, fiber crops, sugarcane, tobacco, fodder and pasture crops
• Origin, history, distribution, adaptation, climate, soil, season, modern varieties, seed rate, fertilizer requirements, crop geometry, intercultural operations, water requirement, weed control, harvest, quality components, industrial use, economics, and post-harvest technology
• Package of practices in the respective locations

Unit 6: Agricultural Statistics

• Frequency distribution, standard error and deviation, correlation and regression analyses
• Coefficient of variation
• Tests of significance: t-test, F-test, and chi-square (χ2)
• Data transformation and missing plot techniques
• Design of experiments and their basic principles
• Completely randomized, randomized block, split-plot, strip-plot, factorial, and simple confounding designs
• Efficiency of designs
• Methods of statistical analysis for cropping systems including intercropping
• Pooled analysis

Unit 7: Sustainable Land Use Systems

• Tillage - Concept, types, tilth, tools, and implements
• Modern concepts of tillage and conservation agriculture
• Land capability classification
• Alternate land use and agroforestry systems
• Types, extent, and causes of wasteland
• Shifting cultivation
• Concept of sustainability
• Sustainability parameters and indicators
• Agricultural and agro-industrial residues and their recycling

Unit 8: Soil-Plant-Water Relationship

• Importance of water in agriculture
• Hydrological cycle, runoff, and infiltration
• Factors affecting infiltration
• Soil water relations, water retention by soil, soil moisture characteristics
• Field capacity, permanent wilting point, plant available water, and extractable water
• Soil irrigability classifications
• Determination of soil water content
• Computation of soil water depletion, soil water potential, and its components
• Movement of soil water
• Saturated and unsaturated water flow
• Evapotranspiration (ET), PET, AET and its measurements
• Crop coefficient
• Plant water relations
• Methods of moisture estimation in plants
• Soil and water conservation measures: agronomical, mechanical, and agrostological

Unit 9: Irrigation Water Management

• History of irrigation in India
• Major irrigation projects in India
• Water resource development
• Crop water requirements
• Concepts of irrigation scheduling
• Different approaches of irrigation scheduling
• Concept of critical stages of crop growth in relation to water supplies
• Methods of irrigation: surface, subsurface, and pressurized irrigation methods
• Merits and demerits
• Measurement of irrigation water
• Application and distribution efficiencies
• Conjunctive use of water
• Interaction between irrigation and fertilizers

Unit 10: Management of Problematic Soils and Crop Production

• Problem soils and their distribution in India
• Acidic, saline, waterlogged, and mined soils
• Response of crops to acidity, salinity, excess water, and nutrient imbalances
• Reclamation of problem soils
• Role of amendments and drainage
• Crop production techniques in problem soils
• Degraded lands and their rehabilitation
• Management strategies for flood-prone areas
• Drainage for improving waterlogged soils for crop production
• Crop production and alternate use of problematic soils and poor-quality water for agriculture

Unit 11: Cropping and Farming Systems and Organic Farming

• Cropping system definition, principles, classification
• Cropping system for different ecosystems
• Interaction and indices
• Non-monetary inputs and low-cost technologies
• LEIA, HEIA, and LEISA
• Farming systems types: natural, bio-dynamic, bio-intensive, response, precision, biological, and organic farming
• Organic and bio inputs
• Soil health, organic matter, and Integrated organic farming systems
• IFS concepts, models for different ecosystems, resource recycling, and evaluation

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Agronomy : Crop Production Technology PPTs

(Note: To smoothly read the class presentation, please download the 'Google Slides' app from the Google Play Store and open it. The presentation should open without any issues. Enjoy the full-color and interactive Agriculture PowerPoint presentations. "कक्षा प्रस्तुति को सुविधापूर्वक पढ़ने के लिए कृपया 'गूगल स्लाइड्स' ऐप को Google Play Store से डाउनलोड करें और इसे खोलें। प्रस्तुति बिना किसी बाधा के खुलनी चाहिए। फुल-रंग और इंटरैक्टिव कृषि पीपीटी का आनंद लें।")

4. Cultivation of Millets

9. Cultivation of Oilseed Crops (Groundnut Crops)

10. Cultivation of Oilseed Crops (Rapeseed-Mustard Crops)

Enhancing Rainfed Agriculture in India: The REWARD Program

Useful for : IBPS AFO Mains Exam (Agriculture Knowledge), NABARD Grade A, CWC, FCI, NSC, CUET ICAR  PG JRF SRF AO ADO Exam

Source : Ministry of Rural Development

Introduction of REWARD Program

India's agricultural landscape is diverse, with a significant portion of it relying on rainfed farming. Rainfed agriculture sustains the livelihoods of millions of farmers across the country. However, it faces challenges such as water scarcity, soil degradation, and climate change impacts, which affect productivity and farmer incomes. To address these challenges, the Department of Land Resources (DoLR) under the Ministry of Rural Development has partnered with the World Bank to launch the REWARD program. This joint initiative aims to enhance the resilience and productivity of rainfed agriculture in selected watersheds of India.

Understanding Rainfed Agriculture

Rainfed agriculture, as the name suggests, depends primarily on rainfall for crop cultivation. Unlike irrigated agriculture, where water is readily available, rainfed areas are vulnerable to the vagaries of weather. Approximately 60% of India's net sown area falls under rainfed farming, making it critical for food security and rural livelihoods.

The Need for Resilience

Rainfed farming is inherently risky. Inconsistent rainfall patterns, prolonged dry spells, and extreme weather events can lead to crop failures and financial hardships for farmers. Moreover, the depletion of natural resources due to unsustainable practices poses long-term threats to agriculture.

The Objectives of the REWARD Program

The REWARD (Rainfed Area Development) program has set forth a comprehensive strategy to address the challenges faced by rainfed agriculture. Its primary objectives include:

Improved Watershed Management: The program focuses on sustainable land and water management practices. Watershed development activities aim to conserve soil moisture and improve water availability for agriculture.

Enhancing Crop Productivity: Through the adoption of modern farming techniques, improved seeds, and efficient resource management, the program seeks to enhance crop yields and diversify agricultural production.

Capacity Building: Farmers are provided with training and extension services to equip them with the knowledge and skills needed to make informed decisions regarding crop selection and farming practices.

Climate Resilience: Given the increasing unpredictability of weather patterns, the program encourages the adoption of climate-resilient farming practices and technologies.

Livelihood Diversification: Beyond crop cultivation, the REWARD program promotes allied activities such as livestock rearing and agroforestry to enhance farmers' income and reduce vulnerability.

Implementation and Impact of REWARD Program

The REWARD program operates in selected watersheds across several states in India. Its success lies in its participatory approach, involving local communities, NGOs, and government agencies. By integrating the knowledge and experiences of farmers, the program has been able to tailor solutions to the specific needs of each watershed.

The impact of the REWARD program is visible in various ways:

• Increased crop yields and incomes for participating farmers.
• Improved soil health and water management practices.
• Enhanced resilience to climate change-induced challenges.
• Reduction in migration from rural areas due to improved livelihood opportunities.

Conclusion of REWARD Program

• The REWARD program is a commendable effort by the Indian government, in collaboration with the World Bank, to transform rainfed agriculture. 
• By addressing the vulnerabilities of this critical sector, the program not only improves the lives of farmers but also contributes to the country's food security and sustainable development. 
• As we navigate an era of climate uncertainty, initiatives like REWARD serve as beacons of hope for India's rainfed farming communities, empowering them to thrive in the face of adversity.

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