Notes on Agroforestry

Agroforestry - Definitions, Objectives, Potential and Distinction between Agroforestry and Social Forestry

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Concept of Agroforestry:

• Agroforestry is an age-old practice.
• Farmers in warmer regions have a tradition of growing food crops, trees, and animals together.
• Trees and forests are integral to Indian culture.
• Rishis who evolved Hindu philosophy lived in forests in harmony with nature.
• Planting trees was practiced alongside agriculture crops.
• "Krishishukti" by Maharishi Kashyap classified suitable areas for tree planting.
• Traditional foresters and agriculturists focused on monoculture production.
• Recent forest area reduction led to resource scarcity.
• Shortage of wood increased commodity prices.
• Farmers started planting trees on their lands to meet shortages.
• Agroforestry is a collective name for land use systems involving trees, crops, and/or animals.
• Agroforestry combines production of multiple outputs with protection of the production base.
• It emphasizes the use of indigenous trees and shrubs.
• Suitable for low-input conditions and fragile environments.
• Involves sociocultural values more than other land-use systems.
• Structurally and functionally more complex than monoculture.

AGROFORESTRY DEFINITIONS:

• Agroforestry is a relatively new name for old land use practices.
• Different definitions proposed worldwide.
• Accepted as a land use system.
• Bene et al. (1977) defined agroforestry as a sustainable management system.
• King and Chandler (1978): "Agroforestry is a sustainable land management system."
• Nair (1979) defines agroforestry as a land use system that integrates trees, crops, and animals.
• Lundgren and Raintree (1982) define agroforestry as a collective name for land use systems.
• Agroforestry systems have ecological and economical interactions between components.

Objectives of Agroforestry:

• Two essential aims: conserve and improve the site, optimize combined production.
• Three attributes: productivity, sustainability, adoptability.

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Notes on Inter Cultivation Operation

Notes on Inter Cultivation Operation

References: www.eagri.org or https://ecourses.icar.gov.in/ 

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Inter Cultivation:

• Inter-cultivation refers to cultivation practices carried out after crop sowing.
• Also known as after operations.
• Three important after cultivation processes: Thinning and gap filling, weeding and hoeing, and earthing up.

Thinning and Gap Filling:

• Thinning and gap filling aim to maintain an optimal plant population.
• Thinning involves removing excess plants to leave healthy seedlings.
• Gap filling fills gaps by sowing seeds or transplanting seedlings where early-sown seeds did not germinate.
• Typically practiced one week to a maximum of 15 days after sowing.
• In dryland agriculture, gap filling precedes thinning.
• It's a mid-season correction strategy to mitigate plant stress.

Weeding and Hoeing:

• Weeding is the removal of unwanted plants.
• Weeding and hoeing are simultaneous operations.
• Hoeing involves disturbing the topsoil with small hand tools and improves soil aeration.

Earthing Up:

• Earthing up is relocating soil from one side of a ridge closer to the crop.
• Done around 6-8 weeks after sowing or planting in wide-spaced and deep-rooted crops like sugarcane, tapioca, and banana.

Other Inter Cultivation Practices:

• Harrowing: Stirring or scraping the surface soil between crop rows using tools or implements.
• Roguing: Removing plants of a different variety mixed with the same crop to maintain purity, often practiced in seed production.
• Topping: Removing terminal buds to stimulate auxiliary growth, commonly done in cotton and tobacco.
• Propping: Providing support to prevent lodging, often practiced in sugarcane by tying cane stalks from adjacent rows together.
• De-trashing: Removing older leaves from sugarcane crops.
• De-suckering: Removing axillary buds and branches that are non-essential for crop production and nutrient removal, as seen in tobacco.

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Notes on Role of Manures and Fertilizers in Crop Production

Notes on Role of Manures and Fertilizers in Crop Production

References: www.eagri.org or https://ecourses.icar.gov.in/ 

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Manures:

• Manures are plant and animal wastes used as a source of plant nutrients.
• They release nutrients after decomposition.
• Manures are categorized as bulky organic manures and concentrated organic manures.
• Examples of bulky organic manures include FYM, compost, night soil, sludge, sewage, and green manures.
• Concentrated organic manures include oilcakes, blood meal, fishmeal, and bone meal.
• Fertilizers are industrially manufactured chemicals containing plant nutrients.
• Fertilizers have higher nutrient content compared to organic manures and release nutrients almost immediately.
• Three groups of fertilizers: Straight fertilizers (single nutrient), Complex fertilizers (two or more nutrients), Mixed fertilizers (two or more nutrients).

Role of Manures and Fertilizers:

• Organic manures improve water holding capacity in sandy soil.
• They enhance aeration and root growth in clayey soil.
• Organic manures add plant nutrients, including micronutrients, essential for plant growth.
• Increase microbial activity, aiding in nutrient release.
• Organic manures require incorporation before sowing due to slow nutrient release.
• Fertilizers supply essential nutrients in large quantities to crops.
• They are readily utilized by plants directly or after rapid transformation.
• Fertilizer dose can be adjusted based on soil testing.
• Balanced nutrient application is possible by mixing appropriate fertilizers.

Agronomic Interventions for Enhancing Fertilizer Use Efficiency (FUE):

• Using the best fertilizer source depends on crop, variety, climate, soil condition, and availability.
• Examples of fertilizer sources for different nutrients are provided:
• Nitrogen: Ammoniacal or Nitrate
• Phosphorus: Water soluble or Citrate soluble
• Potassium: Muriate of potash
• Sulphur: Sulphate or Elemental S
• Multinutrient fertilizers: MAP, DAP, SSP, Nitrophosphates
• Multi-nutrient mixtures: Various NPK combinations
• Fortified fertilizers: Neem-coated urea, Zincated urea, Boronated SSP, NPKS mix.
• Adequate fertilizer rates are essential, diagnosed using various methods:
• State recommended generalized fertilizer dose or blanket recommendation
• Soil-test based fertilizer recommendations
• Soil-test crop response based recommendations
• Plant analysis for diagnosing nutrient deficiencies
• Chlorophyll meter and Leaf colour charts, etc.

Balanced Fertilization:

• Balanced fertilization involves adequate supply of essential nutrients, proper application methods, timing, and nutrient interrelationships.
• Adequate supply of all essential nutrients is essential to avoid deficiencies in secondary and micro-nutrients.
• Experimental results show that adding minor quantities of micro-nutrients (about 20-25 kg or two foliar sprays) can increase crop yields by up to 20%.
• Proper methods for applying nutrients include broadcasting, band placement, and foliar sprays, depending on the nutrient and soil type.
• Timing of nutrient application varies according to the crop's physiological needs.
• Upland crops typically require two splits of fertilization (seeding and 3-5 weeks after the first dose).
• Flooded rice usually requires three splits (transplanting, 3 and 6 weeks after the first dose).
• Nutrient interrelationships should be considered to avoid antagonistic effects.
• Excessive application of certain fertilizers, like 120 kg P ha-1, can lead to imbalances and reduced crop yields and quality.

Integrated Nutrient Management:

• Integrated nutrient management involves blending organic sources (manures, crop residues, green manures, bio-fertilizers) with inorganic fertilizers to meet crop demands.
• Efficient use of available organic sources reduces the need for inorganic fertilizers.

Utilization of Residual Nutrients:

• Efficient utilization of crop residues involves understanding climatic conditions and carry-over effects.
• Proper blending of residues in cereal-legume rotations is important.
• Mixing shallow-deep rooted crop rotations helps utilize residual nutrients effectively.

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Notes on Sustainable Agriculture:

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Introduction:

• Sustainability: The perpetual ability within systems; focuses on system integrity and the ability to withstand stresses and shocks.
• Agricultural sustainability: Mainly about ecological sustainability, evolving from subsistence farming to profit-oriented farming.
• Technological advancements in agriculture have met demands but led to a decline in resource quality and quantity.
• Twentieth-century awakening: Realization of the limits of Earth's resources and the need for sustainability in ecosystems and agriculture.
• Key studies: "The Limits to Growth" (Meadows et al., 1972), works by Lester Brown, Paul Ehrlich, and the International Union for Conservation of Natural Resources highlighting the need for sustainable development.

Historical Perspective:

• Origin of sustainable agriculture concept: Roman landowner Marcus Terentius Varro, first century BC.
• Agriculture: From nomadic to settled, and then to industrialized and globalized, with increasing reliance on external resources.
• Subsistence agriculture: Practiced for 6000 years pre-industrial era with minimal disruption to nature.

Sustainable Development and Sustainable Agriculture:

• The Brundtland Commission Report emphasized sustainable development, targeting environmental damage and advocating holistic agricultural systems.
• Sustainable agriculture became central to sustainable development, recognized by FAO, World Bank, and CGIAR.

Components of Sustainable Agriculture:

• Human, economic, and social development as crucial areas for sustainable development.
• Focus on food security, health, education, and basic amenities.
• Recognition of the negative impacts of Green Revolution technologies and the need for sustainable development strategies.
• Importance of ecological sustainability and economic profitability for agriculture.

Economic Viability:

• Evolution of agriculture from subsistence to profit-driven, influenced by market demand and socio-economic-political factors.
• Economic profitability essential for sustainability in agriculture.
• Varied agricultural policies globally, based on production excess or need.

Ecological Viability:

• Modern agricultural methods increased yields but negatively impacted soil, environment, and biodiversity.
• Emphasis on conserving natural resources for sustainable biological productivity.
• Importance of ecological processes and sustainable management techniques.

Social Acceptability:

• Social justice and equity as critical components of sustainability.
• The impact of macro-economic policies and cultural factors on agriculture.
• Challenges faced by subsistence and commercial farmers in adopting Green Revolution technologies.

Prioritization:

• Trade-offs necessary for pragmatic sustainability.
• Priority on productivity and ecological soundness over economic and social viability.
• Resource-based approach to sustainability, acknowledging ecological limits to intensification.

Agriculture in India:

• Analysis of agriculture since independence: Achievements and challenges.
• The transition from traditional to Green Revolution technologies.
• Increase in food production but accompanied by environmental and ecological concerns.

Contextual Nature of Agricultural Sustainability:

• Sustainable agriculture as a complex, multidimensional concept.
• Various agricultural systems shaped by physical, biological, socio-economic, and cultural determinants.

Indicators of Sustainability:

• Challenges in measuring sustainability due to its varied dimensions.
• Different approaches and frameworks for assessing sustainability at various levels.

Strategies for Realizing Agricultural Sustainability:

• Two key components: Ecological soundness and socio-economic equity.
• Strategies across farming, natural resources management, and socio-political contexts.

Crop Production Practices:

• Diversification and site-specific management for sustainable production.
• Emphasis on reducing reliance on monocultures and adapting to changing circumstances.

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History and Speciality of Triticale -for All Agriculture Exams IBPS ADO, RAEO, JRF, SRF & CUET Target Exam

This exam facts are from famous book: Handbook of Agriculture published by I C A R

History of Triticale

• Triticale is a Man madecereal.
• Triticale is a hybrid of wheat (Triticum) and rye (Secale) first bred in laboratories during the late 19th century in Scotland and Germany.(This is asked in Rajasthan Agriculture Officer Exam 2020)
• Triticale is a hybrid or intergeneric cross that is made by the crossing of wheat and rye.(This is asked in ICAR S R F 2021)
• Triticale is first wheat x rye that occurred in Scotland during 1875.(This is asked in IBPS Agriculture Field Officer Exam 2019)
• The name Triticatefirst appeared in Germany in 1935.(This is asked in B H U PRE P G 2020)
• Triticale, hexaploid cultivars are most commonly used. 
• Hexaploids of wheat and rye are called primary hexaploids.For free such exam facts and notes, visit www. agrimly.in 
• Triticale is either spring or winter cultivated. 
• Majority of triticale cultivars are awned.
• Initial cultivars are, low yielder, tall and weak straw, shrunken/shriveled kernels, high susceptibility to ergot. But high protein, high levels of amino acids and good for animal nutrition.
• Commercially available triticale is almost always a second generation hybrid, i.e., a cross between two kinds of primary (first cross) triticales.(This is asked in ICAR J R F 2021)
• As a rule, triticale combines the yield potential and grain quality of wheat with the disease and environmental tolerance including soil conditions of rye.For Online Classes, Tests, Notes Visit www. agricoachingonline.com
• But today’s cultivable triticale has better yielding ability than wheat, more tiller producing habit, resistance to lodging, resistance to ergot, plump kernels, and protein is similar to bread wheat, suitable for spring and winter seasons.

Speciality of Triticale

• Triticale can utilize water and nutrients more efficiently than winter wheat.
• Seeding, seed rate, season, etc. are similar to wheat.
• Nutrient and water requirements are similar to wheat and they are responding well when grown for grain.
• For forage, the seed rate may be enhanced to 80-100 kg in rainfed and drylands.
• For irrigated crops about 110 kg of seed rate is adopted.(This is asked in IBPS Agriculture Field Officer Exam 2015)
• Since the complete package of practices for triticale are not developed, cultural practices of wheat are utilized for cultivating triticale

Cultivation of Barley (Hordeum vulgare) -for All Agriculture Exams IBPS ADO, RAEO, JRF SRF

Cultivation of Barley (Hordeum vulgare)

This exam facts are from famous book: Handbook of Agriculture published by I C A R

Video Lecture: (Click here)

Nutritional importance of barley

• Barley crop isimportant next to rice, wheat, maize crop in area and production
• Protein in the barley crop is 11.5%.
• Barley grain contains 12.5 % moisture, 11.5  % albuminoids, 74 % carbohydrates. 
• Barley crop is great demand to malting industry
• Barley is a highly salt tolerant crop (IBPS AFO 2018) For free such exam facts and notes, visit www. agrimly.in 
• Most staple food in Tibet, Nepal and Bhutan (This is asked in ICAR J R F 2020)
• Mostly barley crop used as “Missi roti”
• Mostly barley crop used for malt, beer, whisky and industrial alcohol, vinegar.
• Barley crop is used for energy rich drinks like bournvita, boost, horlicks.
• Barley grain is roasted and ground and used as 'Sattu' (barley flour mixed in sugar and water). 
• Barley crop is reduce cholesterol level in liver
• Malt syrup is utilized in the preparation of candies, breakfast beverages and medicines. 
• By-product of the brewing and distilling industry, known as 'brewers' and 'distillers grain' is useful as cattle feed.For Online Classes, Tests, Notes Visit www. agricoachingonline.com
• Bold and plump-seeded barley varieties are suitable for manufacture of 'pearl barley' and powder products, which form the diet of the sick and convalescent people. 
• Pearl barley is used for barley water, which is diuretic and is given to persons suffering from kidney disorders. (This is asked in IBPS Agriculture Field Officer Exam 2018)

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Quality Protein Maize (QPM) -for All Agriculture Exams IBPS AFO, ADO, RAEO, JRF, SRF, CUET EXAM

Quality Protein Maize (QPM) 

This exam facts are from famous book: Handbook of Agriculture published by I C A R

Video Lecture: (Click here)

• Quality protein maize (QPM) contains the opaque-2 gene along with numerous modifiers for kernel hardness. (ICAR S R F 2018)
• QPM is maize with high nutritive value of endosperm protein, with substantially higher content of lysine and tryptophan essential amino acids. (ICAR J R F 2020)
• Quality Protein Maize which is nutritionally superior to normal maize is the new mantra to signify its importance not only for food and nutritional security but also for quality feed for poultry and animal sectors.(This is asked in State Pre P G 2022)
• For free such exam facts and notes, visit www.agrimly.in www. agrimly.in
• Quality Protein Maize has specific features of having a balanced amount of amino acids with highcontent of lysine and tryptophan and low content of leucine and isoleucine. (This is asked in IBPS Agriculture Field Officer Exam 2019 and ICAR S R F 2022)
• The balanced proportion of all these essential amino acids in Quality Protein Maize enhances the biological value of protein. (This is asked in ICAR J R F 2021)
• For Online Classes, Tests, Notes Visit www. agricoachingonline.com
• The biological value of protein in QPM is just double that of normal maize protein which is very close to the milk protein, as the biological value of milk and QPM proteins are 90 and 80 Percent respectively.(This is asked in Rajasthan Agriculture Officer Exam 2018)

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