Production Technology of Fruit Crops:

Mango (Mangifera Indica):

• Origin and Importance:
• Native to India, cultivated for over 400 years.
• India contributes approximately 56% of global mango production.
• Climate and Soil Requirements:
• Ideal soil: Alluvial to lateritic, pH slightly acidic.
• Climate: Tropical, can grow up to 1,100m above sea level.
• Temperature: 24-27°C; Rainfall: 25-250cm.
• Varieties:
• Over 1,000 varieties in India.
• Commercial varieties differ regionally (e.g., Banganapalli in Andhra Pradesh, Alphonso in Karnataka).
• Propagation:
• Methods include lnarching, veneer and side grafting, epicotyl/stone grafting.
• Planting Techniques:
• Systems: Square, rectangular, hexagonal.
• Planting Season: June to September.
• High-Density Planting for varieties like Mango Amrapali.
• After Care and Management:
• Includes training, pruning, manuring, and intercropping.

Banana:

• Climate Requirements:
• Temperature range: 10°C to 40°C.
• Suitable for humid tropics, up to 1500 meters altitude.
• Soil Preferences:
• Deep, well-drained soil with pH 5.5 – 8.0.
• Propagation and Planting:
• Propagated through suckers; tissue culture also common.
• Irrigation and Fertilization:
• Initial irrigation after planting, regular watering.
• Pests and Diseases Management:
• Major diseases include Panama wilt and Sigatoka leaf spot.

Citrus (Oranges, Lemons, etc.):

• Botanical Classification:
• Family: Rutaceae.
• Origin: South East Asia.
• Soil and Climate:
• Prefers subtropical climate; ideal soil pH: 5.5 to 6.5.
• Manure and Fertilizers:
• Applied twice a year, specific to variety and region.
• Pests and Diseases Management:
• Common diseases include Moko wilt and Tip over or heart rot.

Grapes:

• Climate and Soil Requirements:
• Subtropical fruit; soil preference: well-drained rich loamy soil.
• Varieties and Propagation:
• Over 10,000 varieties worldwide; mainly propagated by hard wood cuttings.
• Manuring and Irrigation:
• Regular manuring and irrigation crucial.
• Pests and Diseases:
• Common pests include nematodes and flea beetles.

Papaya:

• Origin and Nutritional Value:
• Native of Tropical America; rich in Vitamin A.
• Soil and Climate Preferences:
• Tropical climates, temperatures 35-38°C.
• Propagation and Harvesting:
• Propagated from seeds; fruit crop available 12-14 months after planting.
• Nutrient and Water Management:
• Regular application essential for fruit development.
• Papain Extraction:
• Extracted from unripe green fruits; used in medicine and industry.

Sapota (Chikoo):

• Climatic and Soil Requirements:
• Tropical and subtropical conditions; well-drained loamy soil.
• Varieties:
• Multiple varieties, each with distinct taste and texture.
• Propagation and Planting:
• Propagation primarily through seeds; grafting also practiced.

Guava:

• Climatic and Soil Requirements:
• Prefers tropical and subtropical climates; fertile, well-drained soil.
• Varieties:
• Numerous varieties, including both white and pink flesh types.
• Propagation and Planting:
• Propagated by seeds and vegetative methods like grafting.

Pineapple:

• Climatic and Soil Requirements:
• Grows in tropical climate; soil should be well-drained, slightly acidic.
• Varieties:
• Various cultivars available, each with unique flavor and texture.
• Propagation:
• Propagated from crowns, slips, and suckers.

Jackfruit:

• Climatic and Soil Requirements:
• Requires humid tropical climate; fertile, well-drained soil.
• Varieties:
• Different varieties known for distinct taste and fruit size.
• Propagation and Planting:
• Propagated mainly from seeds; grafting also practiced.

Pomegranate:

• Climatic and Soil Requirements:
• Prefers subtropical and arid climates; well-drained soil.
• Varieties:
• Multiple varieties, known for sweet and tart flavors.
• Propagation and Planting:
• Propagated from cuttings and by grafting.

Custard Apple:

• Climatic and Soil Requirements:
• Warm climate with high humidity; grows up to 1000 meters altitude.
• Varieties:
• Includes Balanagar, Red Sitaphal, and African Pride.
• Propagation and Planting:
• Propagated by seeds; vegetative propagation for uniformity.

Ber and Jamun:

• Ber - Climatic and Soil Requirements:
• Suitable for arid and semi-arid regions; tolerates high temperatures.
• Jamun - Climatic and Soil Requirements:
• Prefers tropical and subtropical conditions; well-drained deep loam soil.
• Propagation and Planting:
• Both propagated by seeds; vegetative propagation recommended for Jamun.

Amla (Indian Gooseberry):

• Climatic and Soil Requirements:
• Tolerates subtropical and tropical humid conditions.
• Varieties:
• Includes Chakaiya, Banarasi, Krishna, and Kanchan.
• Propagation and Planting:
• Seed propagation gives variation; vegetative propagation preferred.

Wood Apple and Bael:

• Wood Apple - Climatic and Soil Requirements:
• Grown in dry tracts of tropical and sub-tropical regions.
• Bael - Climatic and Soil Requirements:
• Prefers subtropical condition with hot dry summer.
• Propagation and Planting:
• Both are propagated mainly through seeds.

Date Palm:

• Climatic and Soil Requirements:
• Ideal for areas with long hot summers; deep sandy loam soil.
• Cultivars:
• Includes Halawy, Khadrawy, Barhee, Zahidi, and Medjool.
• Propagation and Planting:
• Propagated by seeds and vegetative propagation through off-shoots.

Subtropical Fruits (Mangosteen):

• Climatic and Soil Requirements:
• Requires humid, warm subtropical climates; well-drained soil.
• Varieties:
• Cultivars are known for their unique flavor and nutritional value.
• Propagation and Planting:
• Propagated mainly through seeds; grafting is also practiced.

Fig:

• Climatic and Soil Requirements:
• Grows in a wide range of climates; prefers well-drained soil.
• Varieties:
• Numerous varieties, each known for its distinct flavor.
• Propagation and Planting:
• Propagated from cuttings; grafting also used.

Litchi:

• Climatic and Soil Requirements:
• Prefers subtropical climate with distinct dry and wet seasons.
• Varieties:
• Includes Shahi, China, and Bombai.
• Propagation and Planting:
• Propagated through air layering and grafting.

Avocado:

• Climatic and Soil Requirements:
• Grows in tropical and subtropical climates; well-drained soil.
• Varieties:
• Different varieties known for their buttery texture and rich flavor.
• Propagation and Planting:
• Propagated from seeds and grafting.

Durian and Carambola (Star Fruit):

• Durian - Climatic and Soil Requirements:
• Requires tropical climate; rich, well-drained soil.
• Carambola - Climatic and Soil Requirements:
• Grows in tropical and subtropical climates; prefers loamy soil.
• Propagation and Planting:
• Both propagated through seeds and vegetative methods.

Rambutan and Longan:

• Rambutan - Climatic and Soil Requirements:
• Prefers humid tropical climates; fertile, well-drained soil.
• Longan - Climatic and Soil Requirements:
• Requires warm subtropical climate; soil pH 5.5 to 6.0.
• Propagation and Planting:
• Propagation mainly through seeds; air layering for Longan.

Apple (Malus pumila):

• Climatic and Soil Requirements:
• Requires temperate climate; well-drained, slightly acidic soil.
• Varieties:
• Includes Red Delicious, Golden Delicious, and McIntosh.
• Propagation and Planting:
• Propagated by grafting; rootstocks include Malus sylvestris, M. prunifolia.

Pear (Pyrus spp.):

• Climatic and Soil Requirements:
• Adaptable to a wide range of climates; well-drained, fertile soil.
• Varieties:
• Includes Bartlett, Anjou, and Flemish Beauty.
• Propagation and Planting:
• Propagated by budding and grafting; rootstocks are typically from Pyrus spp.

Plums and Prunes (Prunus spp.):

• Climatic and Soil Requirements:
• Adapted to many ecologies; requires 100-125 cm of rainfall.
• Varieties:
• Different cultivars adapted to various climatic conditions.
• Propagation and Planting:
• Propagation: Cuttings and clonal rootstocks.

Peach and Nectarines (Prunus persica):

• Climatic and Soil Requirements:
• Ideal for warm temperate climates; well-drained sandy soil.
• Varieties:
• Includes different cultivars for peaches and nectarines.
• Propagation and Planting:
• Propagation: T-budding, cuttings; various rootstocks used.

***

Production Technology of Peach

Peach and Nectarines (Prunus persica):

• Climatic and Soil Requirements:
• Ideal for warm temperate climates, also grown in subtropics.
• Limiting factors: Low winter temperature, spring frost, high humidity.
• Soil: Sandy soils with depth of 7.0 m, pH 5.8 to 6.8.
• Propagation and Planting:
• Propagation: T-budding, leafy succulent soft wood and hardwood cuttings.
• Rootstocks: Seeds from late cultivars, nematode-resistant varieties.
• Training and Pruning:
• Systems: Modified leader, open centre, V-shaped tatura trellis, pillar, high-density vase.
• Pruning: Annual heading back, thinning of side branches.
• Crop Regulation and Harvest:
• Thinning to regulate heavy flowering and fruiting.
• Maturity indices: Days after full bloom, fruit size, fruit firmness, pit discolouration.

***

Production Technology of Plum

 

Production Technology of  Plum and Prune (Prunus spp.):

• Climatic and Soil Requirements:
• Adaptability: Many species and cultivars adapt to different ecologies.
• Rainfall requirement: 100-125 cm, well distributed throughout the year.
• Soil: Avoid poorly drained, shallow soils; depth should be 1.5 m.
• Propagation and Planting:
• Propagation: Cuttings with IBA treatment, clonal rootstocks.
• Planting systems: Square and hexagonal.
• Training systems: Open centre for spreading type, central modified leader for upright type.
• Harvest and Post-harvest Management:
• Maturity indices: Colour development, flesh firmness, days after full bloom.
• Storage: Controlled atmosphere storage for 2-3 months.

Production Technology of Pear

 

Production Technology of Pear (Pyrus spp.):

• Climatic and Soil Requirements:
• Wide climatic adaptability.
• Chilling requirement: About 1200 hours below 7°C.
• Soil: Deep, well-drained, fertile, medium textured clayey loam; pH 6.0-7.5.
• Varieties:
• Bartlett/William’s Pear: Requires 1500 hrs chilling, ovate pyriform fruit.
• Anjou: Resistant to low temperature and fire blight, large fruit.
• Flemish Beauty: Large obovate fruit, pure white and juicy flesh.
• Propagation and Planting:
• Propagation: Shield or ‘T’ budding, whip and tongue grafting.
• Spacing: Initial 3 M x 2 M, changing to 6 M x 4M after 4-5 years.
• Training and Pruning:
• Systems: Pine shaped, pyramid, spindle, palmette, trellis.
• Pear bears fruit bud on two-year-old wood and spurs.

***

Production Technology of Apple

 

Production Technology of Apple (Malus pumila):

• Climatic and Soil Requirements:
• Essentially a temperate crop.
• Altitude for subtropical zone: 1600 – 2500 M above MSL.
• Chilling requirement: 1000 hours below 7°C for winter rest.
• Soil: Well-drained, slightly acidic (pH 6.5 – 6.7), loamy soil with good depth.
• Propagation:
• Method: Whip and tongue method of grafting.
• Rootstocks: Malus sylvestris, M. prunifolia, M. sikkimensis, or their hybrids.
• Varieties:
• Red Delicious: Midseason variety, large fruits, oblong conical, red streaks on skin.
• Golden Delicious: Late variety, medium to large fruits, golden yellow skin.
• McIntosh: Midseason variety, medium size, oblate round fruits.
• Planting and Training:
• Pits size: 60 x 60 x 60 cm, spacing: 5 M x 5M.
• Training: Central leader, open centre, modified leader, cordon, dwarf pyramid, espalier, tatura trellis, Lincoln canopy.
• Manuring and Fertilization:
• Nutrient requirement: 500g N, 250g P, 750g K per tree.
• Deficiency corrections: Calcium chloride for 'bitter pit', Sodium borate for Boron deficiency.
• Pest and Disease Control:
• Aphids: Control with organophosphorous insecticides.
• Blossom thrips: Control with fenetrothion.
• Red spider mites: Managed by integrated control with predators.
• Apple scab: Managed by fungicide sprays.
• Powdery mildew: Controlled with triadimephon or pyrazophos.

***

Production Technology of Longan

 

Production Technology of Longan (Dimocarpus longan) :

• Climatic and Soil Requirements:
• Requires warm subtropical climate with high rainfall.
• Ideal winter: Short and frost-free.
• Ideal summer: Long, hot, humid, and wet.
• Optimal temperature for flowering and fruit set: 20 to 25°C.
• Soil: Deep, well-drained, fertile soil; pH 5.5 to 6.0, low salinity.
• Cultivars:
• Fu yan: Large fruits (18g), thin skin, crisp flesh, small seed. Ideal for canning.
• Wu long line: Medium-sized fruits (15g), thick skin, sweet flavor.
• Wu yuan: Medium-sized fruits (15g), large seed, soft and juicy flesh.
• Daw: Popular in Thailand. Large fruit, big seed, thin skin, crisp sweet flesh.
• Propagation and Planting:
• Propagation: Air layering or marcotting.
• Land preparation 3 to 6 months ahead of planting.
• Planting distance in high-density planting (HDP) system: 6 M x 6 M.
• Pit size for planting: 1 M x 1 M x 1 M.
• Training, Pruning, Irrigation, and Manuring:
• Early growth encouraged for good tree size and canopy within 3-4 years.
• Fertilization: Organic manures and urea.
• Training height: 2 M.
• Irrigation: Frequent, especially before flower emergence and post-harvest.
• Harvest and Yield:
• Harvest after full maturity and ripening.
• Average yield: 100 – 120 kg/tree/year.
• Storage: 4-6 weeks at 5°C.

***

 

Production Technology of Date Palm:

• Origin and Importance:
• Originates from countries around the Persian Gulf.
• Nutritive fruit rich in sugar and iron.
• Climatic and Soil Requirements:
• Ideal for areas with long hot summers and mild temperatures during flowering (February to April) and fruit ripening (May to August).
• Temperature Range: 25-29°C during fruit ripening.
• Soil Preference: Deep sandy loam, tolerates a wide range of soil conditions. Better water holding capacity and good drainage are desirable.
• Cultivars:
• Classified as early, mid, and late cultivars.
• Halawy: Early variety with small, yellow fruits at maturity.
• Khadrawy: Small to medium-sized fruits, light yellow at maturity.
• Barhee: Mid to slightly late season cultivar with small to medium-sized, yellow fruits.
• Zahidi: Mid-season cultivar, tolerant to rain and humidity.
• Medjool: Late cultivar with large, broad, oblong-ovate fruits.
• Propagation and Planting:
• Propagation by seeds has a long juvenile phase (7-8 years for flowering).
• Vegetative propagation through off-shoots is preferred for uniformity.
• Planting Spacing: Varies from 4M – 9M, typically 6M to 8M.
• Irrigation, Manuring, and Interculture:
• Light and frequent irrigations immediately after planting.
• Date palm is drought-tolerant and highly tolerant to saline water.
• Fertilization: 50 kg of FYM, 600 g N, 100 g P, and 700 g K per palm.
• Leaf pruning is done during June for better ventilation of bunches.
• Pollination and Fruitset:
• Hand pollination is practiced.
• Fruit thinning is necessary to retain optimal fruit numbers per palm.
• Spraying ethephon @ 200 ppm 10 – 30 days after fruitset enhances thinning, ripening, and sugar content.
• Harvest, Yield, and Processing:
• Harvest at 'doka stage' during June – August.
• Post-harvest processing includes dipping in boiling water and dehydration to produce 'Chhuhara'.
• Plant Protection:
• Control of termites, rhinoceros beetle, red palm weevil, black headed caterpillar, and false smut.
• Techniques include dusting BHC 10%, injecting Monocrotophos, and predator release.

***

Production Technology of Wood Apple and Bael:

Wood Apple:

• Climatic and Soil Requirements:
• Grown in dry tracts of tropical and sub-tropical regions.
• Tolerates a wide range of soil conditions.
• Cultivars and Propagation:
• No named cultivars; propagation mainly through seeds.
• Field Preparation and Planting:
• Planting in wasteland; pits spaced at 8Mx8M.
• Interculture:
• Training by Central leader method.
• Harvest and Yield:
• Budded plants come to bearing in 3-4 years.

Bael:

• Climatic and Soil Requirements:
• Subtropical condition with hot dry summer ideal.
• Tolerates a wide range of soil pH.
• Cultivars and Propagation:
• Variations in progenies; patch budding recommended.
• Planting and Interculture:
• Planting in pits of 50 cm x 50 cm x 50 cm.
• Harvest and Yield:
• Seedlings take 7-8 years for bearing.

***

 

Production Technology of Custard Apple:

• Origin and Importance:
• Native of Tropical America.
• Rich in carbohydrates, protein, calcium, phosphorus, and iron.
• Relatives include Bullock’s heart, Sour sop, Cherimoyer, and Atemoya.
• Climatic and Soil Requirements:
• Ideal climate: Warm, not very hot, with high humidity and mild winter.
• Grows from sea level up to 1000 meters.
• Annual rainfall of 500-750 mm is adequate for growth and fruiting.
• Varieties:
• Balanagar, Red Sitaphal, Mammoth, African Pride, Pink Mannoth, Arka Sahan, APK (Ca)-1.
• Propagation and Planting:
• Propagated by seeds; vegetative propagation for genetic uniformity.
• Recommended spacing: 5Mx5M.
• Nutrient and Water Management:
• Manure application: 10 kg Farmyard manure per tree.
• Pest and Disease Management:
• Pests include Mealy bugs.
• Diseases: Leaf spot, Anthracnose.
• Harvest and Storage:
• Harvest period: October – November.
• Storage at 15-20°C with RH of 85-90%.

***

 

Production Technology of Papaya:

• Origin and Nutritional Value:
• Native of Tropical America.
• Rich in Vitamin A (2000 IU/100g).
• Soil and Climate Preferences:
• Performs well in tropical climates with temperatures ranging 35-38°C.
• Requires well-drained loam soil.
• Propagation and Harvesting:
• Commonly propagated from seeds.
• First fruit crop available 12-14 months after planting.
• Nutrient and Water Management:
• Regular nutrient application and irrigation are essential for fruit development.
• Papain Extraction:
• Extracted from unripe green fruits.
• Used in various medicinal and industrial applications.

***

 

Production Technology of Grapes:

• Climate and Soil Requirements:
• Subtropical fruit, requires warm dry summer and cool rainy winter.
• Soil preference: Well-drained rich loamy soil with pH 6.5-7.0.
• Varieties and Propagation:
• Over 10,000 varieties worldwide.
• Propagation mainly by hard wood cuttings.
• Manuring and Irrigation:
• Regular manuring and irrigation are crucial.
• Specific nutrient requirements during different growth stages.
• Pests and Diseases:
• Common pests include nematodes and flea beetles.
• Diseases like Powdery mildew and Downy mildew affect grapes.

***

 

Production Technology of Citrus (Oranges, Lemons, etc.):

• Botanical Classification:
• Family: Rutaceae.
• Includes oranges, lemons, limes, pummelo, and grapefruit.
• Origin: South East Asia, specifically South China, Malaya, and Assam.
• Soil and Climate for Citrus:
• Prefers subtropical climate, elevation of 500-1500 m MSL.
• Ideal soil pH: 5.5 to 6.5.
• Manure and Fertilizers:
• Applied twice a year, varying with topography.
• Specific recommendations for different varieties and regions.
• Pests and Diseases Management:
• Common diseases include Moko wilt and Tip over or heart rot.
• Control measures involve good drainage and crop rotation.

***

Production Technology of Banana:

• Origin and Importance:
• Origin: South East Asia.
• Known as the 'Apple of paradise'.
• Rich in energy (137 K. Ca/100g) and acts as a laxative.
• Climate Requirements:
• Temperature range: 10°C to 40°C, average 23°C.
• Humid tropic plant, suitable for altitudes up to 1500 meters.
• Wind velocity above 80 m/hr can heavily damage the crop.
• Soil Preferences:
• Deep, well-drained soil with abundant organic matter.
• Soil pH: Optimum range is 5.5 – 8.0.
• Propagation and Planting:
• Propagation primarily through suckers.
• Sword suckers preferred due to vigor and early bearing.
• Micropropagation via tissue culture is also common.
• Irrigation and Fertilization:
• Initial irrigation immediately after planting, followed by regular watering.
• Fertilizer application varies by land type and cultivar.
• Pests and Diseases Management:
• Major diseases include Panama wilt and Sigatoka leaf spot.
• Nematode and viral diseases like Bunchy top also affect bananas.

***

 

Production Technology of Mango:

Importance:

• Mango is known as the king of fruits and has been cultivated in India for over 400 years.
• India contributes approximately 56% of the total world mango production.
• Major contributing states: Andhra Pradesh (highest production), Uttar Pradesh (largest area), Bihar, Karnataka, Maharashtra, West Bengal, and Gujarat.

Climate and Soil Requirements:

• Suitable Soils: Alluvial to lateritic soils, except black cotton soil with poor drainage.
• Ideal Soil pH: Slightly acidic, not performing well in soils with a pH beyond 7.5.
• Climatic Conditions: Tropical fruit, can be grown up to 1,100m above sea level.
• Ideal Temperature: 24 to 27°C.
• Rainfall: Between 25cm and 250cm.
• Avoid high humidity, rain, or frost during flowering for optimal growth.

Varieties:

• India has about 1,000 varieties, mostly arising from open pollination.
• Commercial Varieties in Various States:
• Andhra Pradesh: Banganapalli, Suvarnarekha, Neelum, Totapuri.
• Bihar: Bombay Green, Chausa, Dashehari, Fazli, Gulabkhas, Himsagar, Langra.
• Gujarat: Kesar, Alphonso, Rajapuri, Jamadar, Totapuri, Neelum, Dashehari, Langra.
• Haryana: Chausa, Dashehari, Langra, Fazli.
• Karnataka: Alphonso, Totapuri, Banganapalli, Pairi, Neelum, Mulgoa.
• Others: Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal.

Availability:

• Mangoes are available in India from March to mid-August.
• Cultivar Characteristics: North Indian cultivars are alternate-bearers, while South Indian ones are generally regular-bearers.

Propagation:

• Mango is a heterozygous, cross-pollinated crop with two types of varieties: polyembryonic (South India) and monoembryonic (North India).
• Propagation Methods: lnarching, veneer and side grafting, epicotyl/stone grafting.

Planting Techniques:

• Planting Systems: Square, rectangular, and hexagonal; square and rectangular are popular.
• Spacing depends on variety vigour and cropping system.
• Planting Season: June to September.
• Pit Preparation: 1m x 1m x 1m size, filled with well-rotten farmyard manure.

High-Density Planting:

• Amenable Varieties: Mango Amrapali in North India.
• Spacing: 2.5m x 2.5m.
• Techniques: Soil drenching with paclobutrazol, pruning for increased production per unit area.

After Care and Management:

• Training and Pruning: Essential in the first few years for spacing branches.
• Manuring and Fertilization: Nutritional requirements vary by region, soil type, and age.
• Intercropping: Useful for checking weed growth and reducing nutrient losses. Examples include blackgram-wheat-mango and brinjal-onion-mango.

Irrigation:

• Young Plants: Regular watering is necessary.
• Newly-planted Grafts: Approx. 30 litres of water per week.
• Irrigation Increases Flowering: Crucial during preflowering phase and after fruits.

Post-Harvest Handling and Storage:

• Grading: Mangoes are graded according to size.
• Packaging: Bamboo baskets (50-100 fruits per basket), wooden boxes, or perforated cardboard boxes are used. Tissue paper or paper shavings provide cushioning.
• Storage Methods:
• Ideal Temperature: 5-16°C for different varieties.
• Controlled atmospheric storage not commonly used for mangoes.
• Waxing (3%) and hot-water treatment extend storage life.
• Hydro-cooling at 12°-15°C for 2 weeks, then 1 week at ambient temperature.

Major Problems, Physiological Disorders, and Integrated Management Practices:

Physiological Disorders:

• Alternate Bearing: Common in North Indian varieties. Treated with paclobutrazol (5g-10g/tree).
• Mango Malformation: Affects productivity, common in Punjab, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Bihar, West Bengal, and Orissa. Treated with deblossoming and NAA (200ppm).
• Black Tip: Caused by smoke from brick-kilns. Controlled by increasing chimney height and borax spraying (0.6%).
• Clustering (Jhumka): Caused by adverse climate in February-March. Low temperatures lead to the growth of fruitlets that do not develop fully.
• Spongy Tissue: Specific to Alphonso mango. Caused by high temperature and post-harvest sunlight exposure. Prevention includes sod culture, mulching, and harvesting at three-fourths maturity.

Pest and Disease Management:

• Mango Hopper: Control with phosalone (0.05%) or carbaryl (2 g/lit) or phosphamidon (1 ml/litre).
• Nut Weevil: Maintain cleanliness, destroy adults in bark crevices, and spray Fenthion (0.1%).
• Stem Borer: Use monocrotophos (36 WSC) padding and carbofuron (3G) for bore holes.
• Fruit Fly: Expose pupae by ploughing, use Methyl Eugenol traps, and bury fallen fruits.
• Powdery Mildew: Apply sulphur dust or wettable sulphur (0.2%) or Tridemorph (0.05%).
• Anthracnose and Stalk and End Rot: Spray Mancozeb (0.2%) or Carbendezim (0.1%)​

***

FRUIT SCIENCE/POMOLOGY (SYLLABUS FOR ICAR’S JRF/SRF(PGS) )

SYLLABUS FOR THE ALL INDIA COMPETITIVE EXAMINATION FOR ADMISSION TO DOCTORAL DEGREE PROGRAMMES AND THE AWARD OF

JRF/SRF (PGS)


13 FRUIT SCIENCE/POMOLOGY 

 Unit 1: Tropical and Dry Land Fruit Production 

Commercial varieties of regional, national and international importance, eco-physiological requirements, recent trends in propagation, scion-stock relationship, planting systems, cropping systems, canopy management, nutrient management, water management, fertigation, role of bio-regulators, abiotic factors limiting fruit production, physiology of flowering, pollination, fruit set and development, honeybees in cross pollination, physiological disorders–causes and remedies, quality improvement by management practices; maturity indices, harvesting, grading, packing, storage and ripening techniques; industrial and export potential, Agri. Export Zones (AEZ) and industrial supports. Crops: Mango, Banana, Citrus, Papaya, Guava, Sapota, Annonas, Aonla, Bael, Wood apple, Jamun, Pomegranate, Ber and minor fruits of tropics. 

Unit 2: Subtropical and Temperate Fruit Production

Commercial varieties of regional, national and international importance, eco-physiological requirements, recent trends in propagation, scion-stock relationship, planting systems, cropping systems, root zone and canopy management, nutrient management, water management, fertigation, role of bio - regulators, abiotic factors limiting fruit production, physiology of flowering, pollination, fruit set and development, honeybees in cross pollination, physiological disorders-causes and remedies, quality improvement by management practices; maturity indices, harvesting, grading, packing, storage and ripening techniques; industrial and export potential, Agri. Export Zones (AEZ) and industrial supports. Crops: Avocado, Pineapple, Jackfruit, Mangosteen, Carambola, Fig and Rambutan, Litchi, Loquat, Apple, Pear, Quince, Grapes, Plums, Peach, Apricot, Cherries, Persimmon, Kiwifruit, Strawberry, Walnut, Almond, Pistachio, Hazelnut. 

Unit 3: Biodiversity and Conservation 

Biodiversity and conservation; issues and goals, centres of origin of cultivated fruits; primary and secondary centres of genetic diversity; present status of gene centres; exploration and collection of germplasm; Role of NAGS ; Conservation of genetic resources–conservation insitu and exsitu. Germplasm conservation – problem of recal citrancy-cold storage of scions, tissue culture, cryopreservation, pollen and seed storage; inventory of germplasm, introduction of germplasm, plant quarantine; intellectual property rights, regulatory horticulture. Detection of genetic constitution of germplasm and maintenance of core group; GIS and documentation of local biodiversity, geographical indication. Crops: Mango, Sapota, Citrus, Guava, Banana, Papaya, Grapes, Jackfruit, Custard apple, Ber, Aonla, Malus &Prunus sp., Litchi andNuts. 

Unit 4: Canopy Management in Fruit Crops 

Canopy management - importance and advantages; factors affecting canopy development; Canopy types and structures with special emphasis on geometry of planting, canopy manipulation for optimum utilization of light. Light interception and distribution in different types of tree canopies; Spacing and utilization of land area - canopy classification; Canopy management through rootstock and scion; Canopy management through plant growth retardants, training and pruning and management practices; Canopy development and management in relation to growth, flowering, fruiting and fruit quality in temperate fruits, Grapes, Mango,Sapota,Guava,Citrus and Ber. 

Unit 5: Breeding of Fruit Crops 

Origin and distribution, taxonomical status - species and cultivars, cytogenetics, genetic resources, blossom biology, breeding systems, breeding objectives, breeding constraints ideo types, approaches for crop improvement – introduction, selection, hybridization, mutation breeding, polyploidy breeding, rootstock breeding, improvement of quality traits, resistance breeding for biotic and abiotic stresses, biotechnological interventions, achievements and future thrust in the following selected fruit crops. Crops: Mango, Banana, Pineapple, Citrus, Grapes, Guava, Sapota, Jackfruit, Papaya, Custard apple, Aonla, Avocado, Ber, Litchi, Jamun, Phalsa, Mulberry, Raspberry, Apple, Pear, Plums, Peach, Apricot, Cherries and Strawberry. 

Unit 6: Post-Harvest Technology

 Maturity indices, harvesting practices and grading for specific market requirements, influence of pre-harvest practices, enzymatic and textural changes, respiration, transpiration; Physiology and biochemistry of fruit ripening, ethylene evolution and ethylene management, factors leading to post-harvest loss, pre-cooling; Treatment prior to shipment, viz., chlorination, waxing, chemicals, bio-control agents and natural plant products, fungicides, hot water, vapour heat treatment, sulphur fumigation and irradiation. Methods of storage-ventilated, refrigerated, MAS, CA storage, physical injuries and disorders; Packing methods and transport, quality evaluation, principles and methods of preservation, food processing, canning, fruit juices, beverages, pickles, jam, jelly, candy; Dried and dehydrated products, nutritionally enriched products, fermented fruit beverages, packaging technology, processing waste management and food safety standards; Role of HACCP. 

Unit 7: Growth and Development

Definition, parameters of growth and development, growth dynamics, morphogenesis; Annual, semiperennial and perennial horticultural crops, environmental impact on growth and development, effect of light, photosynthesis and photoperiodism, vernalisation, effect of temperature, heat units, thermoperiodism; Assimilate partitioning during growth and development, influence of water and mineral nutrition during growth and development, biosynthesis of auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins, abscisic acid, ethylene, brassinosteroids, growth inhibitors, morphactins, role of plant growth promoters and inhibitors, developmental physiology and biochemistry during dormancy, bud break, juvenility, vegetative to reproductive interphase, flowering, pollination, fertilization and fruit set, fruit drop, fruit growth, ripening and seed development; Growth and developmental process during stress - manipulation of growth and development, impact of pruning and training, chemical manipulations in horticultural crops, molecular and genetic approaches in plant growth development. 

Unit 8: Biotechnology of Fruit Crops 

Harnessing bio-technology for improvement of horticultural crops, influence of plant materials, physical, chemical factors and growth regulators on growth and development of plant cell, tissue and organ culture; Callus culture -types, cell division, differentiation, morphogenesis, organogenesis, embryogenesis; Use of bioreactors and in vitro methods for production of secondary metabolites, suspension culture, nutrition of tissues and cells, regeneration of tissues, ex vitro, establishment of tissue culture plants; Physiology of hardening - hardening and field transfer, organ culture-meristem, embryo, anther, ovule culture, embryo rescue, soma clonal variation, protoplast culture and fusion; Construction and identification of somatic hybrids and cybrids, wide hybridization, in vitro pollination and fertilization, haploids, in vitro mutation, artificial seeds, cryopreservation, rapid clonal propagation, genetic engineering and transformation in horticulture crops, use of molecular markers. In vitro selection for biotic and abiotic stress, achievements of biotechnology in horticultural crops and application of gene editing tools in horticultural crops. 

Unit 9: Protected Fruit Culture

Greenhouse – world scenario, Indian situation; present and future, different agro-climatic zones in India, environmental factors and their effects on plant growth; Basics of green house design, different types of structures-glasshouse, shade net, poly tunnels-Design and development of low cost green house structures; Interaction of light, temperature, humidity, CO2, water on crop regulation - Greenhouse heating, cooling, ventilation and shading; Types of ventilation-Forced cooling techniques-Glazing materials-Micro irrigation and Fertigation; Automated green houses, microcontrollers, waste water recycling, management of pest and diseases-IPDM. 

Unit 10: Principles and Practices of Plant Propagation 

Introduction, life cycle in plants, cellular basis for propagation. Sexual propagation – apomixis, polyembryony, chimeras. Factors influencing seed germination, hormonal regulation of germination and seedling growth. Seed quality, treatment, packing, storage, certification and testing. Rooting of cuttings under mist and hot beds. Physiological, anatomical and biochemical aspects of root induction in cuttings. Selection of elite mother plants. Establishment of bud wood bank. Stock, scion and inter stock relationship and incompatibility. Physiology of dwarfing rootstocks. Rejuvenation of senile and seedling orchards progeny orchard and scion bank. Micropropagation In vitro clonal propagation, director ganogenesis, embryogenesis, micro grafting and meristem culture. Hardening, packing and transport of micro-propagules.